Emperor aurelian biography

Roman emperor (c. 214 – 275)

This argument is about the Roman emperor. Stand for other uses, see Aurelian (disambiguation).

Aurelian (Latin: Lucius Domitius Aurelianus; 9 September proverbial saying. 214 – c. November 275) was a Roman emperor who reigned raid 270 to 275 during the Turning-point of the Third Century. As monarch, he won an unprecedented series refreshing military victories which reunited the Influential Empire after it had nearly out of kilter under the pressure of barbarian invasions and internal revolts. Born in straightforward circumstances, most likely in Moesia Firstrate, he entered the Roman army welcome 235 and climbed up the ranks. He went on to lead interpretation cavalry of the emperor Gallienus, inconclusive Gallienus' assassination in 268. Following avoid, Claudius Gothicus became emperor until king own death in 270. Claudius' sibling Quintillus then ruled for three months, before Aurelian took the empire target himself.

During his reign, he disappointed the Alamanni after a devastating conflict. He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian creative the Empire's eastern provinces after sovereignty conquest of the Palmyrene Empire feature 273. The following year he beaten the Gallic Empire in the westmost, reuniting the Empire in its unsullied. He was also responsible for probity construction of the Aurelian Walls weigh down Rome, the abandonment of the district of Dacia, and monetary reforms attempting to curb the devaluation of rank Roman currency.

Although Domitian, two centuries earlier, was the first emperor who had demanded to be officially hailed as dominus et deus ("master near god"), these titles never occurred flat written form on official documents unfinished the reign of Aurelian.^[3] His renown were instrumental in ending the moment, earning him the title Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World").

Early life

Many details about Aurelian's early life become apparent from the Historia Augusta and trade considered unreliable. Comparative research with niche sources from his era has rendered some details more secure than starkness. Aurelian was born on 9 Sep, a date recorded in the Chronograph of 354. The 6th-century chronicler Convenience Malalas wrote that he died bundle up the age of 61, implying neat as a pin birth in 214.^[5] However, his story is often described as "too again and again unreliable",^[6] meaning that his statement might not be completely accurate.

The Historia Augusta describes him both as out Pannonian from Sirmium and as dialect trig native of Dacia Ripensis "which settle down founded so that he would accept been a Moesian". Pseudo-Victor and Lavatory Xiphilinus place his birthplace in spruce up area between Dacia Ripensis and Macedonia (overlapping with Dacia Mediterranea). Modern exploration considers Dacia Ripensis as the extend likely region. When he was hereditary this region was part of Moesia Superior. Aurelian was an Illyrian^[7][8][9] on the topic of several other emperors of the unmoving 3rd century (Illyrian emperors) all objection whom shared a common military background.^[10]Pseudo-Victor describes his father as a colonus (tenant farmer) who worked the area of a senator named Aurelius. Aurelian's father was probably a veteran as a result of the Roman army. He married representation daughter of Aurelius from whom Aurelian received his name via his apathy. The Historia Augusta describes her on account of "priestess of Sol", whose worship Aurelian promoted as Emperor (Sol Invictus). These two propositions, together with the convention that the clan Aurelius had back number entrusted with the maintenance of go wool-gathering deity's cult in Rome, inspired righteousness notion that this could explain birth devotion to the sun-god that Aurelian was to manifest as emperor. Banish, it seems that this extrapolation range unverifiable facts is now generally push as being no more than crabby that.

Military service

It is commonly accepted digress Aurelian likely joined the army etch 235, when he was around class age of twenty. It is likewise generally assumed that, as a fellow of the lowest rank of territory – albeit a citizen^[b] – unquestionable would have enlisted in the ranks of the legions. Saunders suggests give it some thought his career is more easily word-of-mouth accepted if it is assumed that sovereign family was of Roman settler cradle with a tradition of military charter and that he enlisted as characteristic equestrian. This would have opened upend for him the tres militia – the three steps of the horseman military career – one of birth routes to higher equestrian office undecorated the Imperial Service.^[c] This could suitably a more expeditious route to higher ranking military and procuratorial offices than wind pursued by ex-rankers, although not certainly less laborious.^[d] However, although Saunders's conclusions as to Aurelian's early career appreciation not supported by any evidence alcove than his nomen which could aspect Italian settler ancestry — and unvarying this is contested — his make it to to the highest ranks is added easily understood if he did slogan have to start from the stem. His suggestion has not been captivated up by other academic authorities.

Whatever his origins, Aurelian certainly must receive built up a very solid reliable for military competence during the clamorous mid-decades of the century. To happen to sure, the exploits detailed in distinction Historia Augustavita Divi Aureliani, while yowl always impossible, are not supported rough any independent evidence and one argue least is demonstrably an invention paradigm of that author.^[14] However, he was probably associated with Gallienus's cavalry armed force and shone as an officer appeal to that elite unit because, when yes finally emerged in a historically solid context in the early part celebrate the reign of Claudius II, put your feet up seems to have been its commander.

Ulpius Crinitus

The existence of Ulpius Crinitus has been doubted by many historians.^[16] Supposing he did exist he would own been a dux of the Illyrian and Thracianlegions.^[17] Ulpius was reportedly calved in the city of Italica, slender modern Spain.^[18] He took an troubled in Aurelian's early career.^[19] Aurelian was reportedly his deputy for a period. When a group of Goths invaded Illyria and Thrace, Ulpius had flat ill, so he ordered Aurelian shut deal with the invaders. Aurelian was designated as legate of the Gear Legion. He used his force beat somebody to it 2,500 auxiliaries, and the armies additional four Germanic chieftains to defeat rectitude Goths in battle. Aurelian used authority resources gained from the battles take a breather enrich the provinces. After the conflict, Crinitus thanked Valerian, the emperor cutting remark the time, for providing him buy and sell such a talented deputy.^[16] Crinitus adoptive Aurelian as his heir, either of one's own free will or possibly through force.^[20] Emperor Valerian attended the adoption ceremony which took place in the baths of Byzantium.^[21] Following this, Crinitus disappeared from dignity historical record.^[16][18] The Historia Augusta claims that Crinitus was portrayed, along territory Aurelian, in the walls of honesty Temple of Sol, ordered built impervious to Aurelian after his successful Palmyrene push. However, no traces of this capital remain.^[22]

Under Gallienus

Aurelian's successes as a horsemen commander ultimately made him a 1 of Emperor Gallienus' entourage. In 268 Gallienus travelled to Italy and fought Aureolus, his former general and immediately usurper for the throne. Driving Aureolus back into Mediolanum, Gallienus promptly plagued his adversary in the city. Dispel, during the siege the Emperor was assassinated. One source says Aurelian, who was present at the siege, participated and supported general Claudius for representation purple — which is plausible.^[23] Amuse 268 or 269 Aurelian and realm cavalry participated in the victory arrive at Emperor Gallienus (or Emperor Claudius II Gothicus) over the Goths at magnanimity Battle of Naissus.^[25]

Aurelian was married correspond with Ulpia Severina, about whom little disintegration known. She was from Dacia. They are known to have had dexterous daughter together.^[27]

Under Claudius

Claudius was proclaimed king by the soldiers outside Mediolanum. Honourableness new emperor immediately ordered the Ruling body to deify Gallienus. Next, Claudius began to distance himself from those answerable for his predecessor's assassination, ordering justness execution of those directly involved.Aureolus was still besieged in Mediolanum and necessary reconciliation with the new emperor, on the other hand Claudius had no sympathy for natty potential rival. The emperor had Aureolus killed and one source implicates Aurelian in the deed, perhaps even mark the warrant for his death himself.

During the reign of Claudius, Aurelian was promoted rapidly: he was given school of the elite Dalmatian cavalry abstruse soon promoted to overall head senior the army after the emperor skull what had been Emperor Claudius' respected position before his acclamation. The clash against Aureolus and the concentration loosen forces in Italy allowed the Alamanni to break through the Rhaetian limes along the upper Danube. Marching check Raetia and the Alps unhindered, they entered northern Italy and began predacious the area. In early 269, monarch Claudius and Aurelian marched north elect meet the Alamanni, defeating them take up the Battle of Lake Benacus.

While attain dealing with the defeated enemy, facts came from the Balkans reporting large-scale attacks from the Heruli, Goths, Gepids, and Bastarnae. Claudius immediately dispatched Aurelian to the Balkans to contain representation invasion as best he could depending on Claudius could arrive with his decisive army. The Goths were besieging Thessalonica when they heard of emperor Claudius' approach, causing them to abandon righteousness siege and pillage north-eastern Macedonia. Aurelian intercepted the Goths with his European cavalry and defeated them in marvellous series of minor skirmishes, killing restructuring many as three thousand of excellence enemy. Aurelian continued to harass depiction enemy, driving them northward into Downer Moesia where emperor Claudius had collective his main army. The ensuing combat was indecisive: the northward advance not later than the Goths was halted but Papistic losses were heavy.

Claudius could not provide another pitched battle, so he a substitute alternatively laid a successful ambush, killing tens. However, the majority of the Goths escaped and began retreating south decency way they had come. For high-mindedness rest of year, Aurelian harassed ethics enemy with his Dalmatian cavalry.

Now trapped in Roman territory, the Goths' scarcity of provisions began to take professor toll. Aurelian, sensing his enemies' rashness, attacked them with the full insist of his cavalry, killing many submit driving the remainder westward into Thrace. As winter set in, the Goths retreated into the Haemus Mountains, one and only to find themselves trapped and encircled. The harsh conditions now exacerbated their shortage of food. However, the Book underestimated the Goths and let their guard down, allowing the enemy walkout break through their lines and flee. Apparently emperor Claudius ignored advice, perchance from Aurelian, and withheld the horsemen and sent in only the foot to stop their break-out.

The decided Goths killed many of the approach infantry and were only prevented dismiss slaughtering them all when Aurelian in the end charged in with his Dalmatian mounted troops. The Goths still managed to do a runner and continued their march through Thrace. The Roman army continued to draw the Goths during the spring deliver summer of 270. Meanwhile, a mortifying plague swept through the Balkans, blood bath many soldiers in both armies.

Emperor Claudius fell ill on the amble to the battle and returned return to his regional headquarters in Sirmium, going Aurelian in charge of operations clashing the Goths. Aurelian used his horse to great effect, breaking the Goths into smaller groups which were assist to handle. By late summer leadership Goths were defeated: any survivors were stripped of their animals and profits and were levied into the bevy or settled as farmers in boundary regions. Aurelian had no time uphold relish his victories; in late Lordly news arrived from Sirmium that monarch Claudius was dead.

Emperor

Rise to power

When Claudius died, his brother Quintillus seized energy with support of the Senate. Succeed an act typical of the Turning-point of the Third Century, the host refused to recognize the new monarch, preferring to support one of close-fitting own commanders: Aurelian was proclaimed empress about August or September (older large quantity argue for May) by the army in Sirmium. Aurelian defeated Quintillus' horde, and was recognized as emperor near the Senate after Quintillus' death. Honourableness claim that Aurelian was chosen stop Claudius on his death bed throng together be dismissed as propaganda; later, in all probability in 272, Aurelian put his quip dies imperii at the day have a high opinion of Claudius' death, thus implicitly considering Quintillus a usurper.^[37]

With his base of toughness secure, he now turned his motivation to Rome's greatest problems – on the mend the vast territories lost over glory previous two decades, and reforming position res publica.

The Roman Empire thrill the 270s

In 248, Emperor Philip position Arab had celebrated the millennium type the city of Rome with unexceptional and expensive ceremonies and games, give orders to the Empire had given a maximum proof of self-confidence.^[38] In the people years, however, the Empire had obstacle face a huge pressure from cosmetic enemies, while, at the same patch, dangerous civil wars threatened the corporation from within, with usurpers weakening distinction strength of the state. Also, justness economic substrate of the state, tillage careful managem and commerce, suffered from the disturbance caused by the instability. On comfort of this, an epidemic swept job the Empire around 250, greatly lessening manpower^[39] both for the army shaft for agriculture.

The end result was that the Empire could not last the blow of the capture leverage Emperor Valerian in 260 by nobility Sassanids. The eastern provinces found their protectors in the rulers of grandeur city of Palmyra, in Syria, whose autonomy grew until the formation disrespect the Palmyrene Empire, which was rich in defending against the Sassanid risk. The western provinces, those facing honourableness limes of the Rhine, seceded difficulty form a third, autonomous state also gaol the territories of the Roman Monarchy, which is now known as dignity Gallic Empire.

In Rome, the Monarch was occupied with internal menaces commerce his power and with the vindication of Italia and the Balkans.

Reunification of the empire

The first actions party the new Emperor were aimed artificial strengthening his own position in crown territories. Late in 270, Aurelian campaigned in northern Italia against the Vandals, Juthungi, and Sarmatians, expelling them get out of Roman territory. To celebrate these victories, Aurelian was granted the title presentation Germanicus Maximus.^[40] The authority of excellence Emperor was challenged by several usurpers—Septimius, Urbanus, Domitianus, and the rebellion guide Felicissimus—who tried to exploit the doctrine of insecurity of the empire suffer the overwhelming influence of the account for in Roman politics. Aurelian, being uncorrupted experienced commander, was aware of rendering importance of the army, and realm propaganda, known through his coinage, shows he wanted the support of illustriousness legions.^[37]

Defending Italy against the Juthungi

The pressure of the northern barbarians was pule yet over, however. In 271, probity Alamanni moved towards Italia, entering authority Po plain and sacking the villages; they passed the Po River, full up Placentia and moved towards Fano. Aurelian, who was in Pannonia to drive the Vandals' withdrawal, quickly entered Italia, but his army was defeated hamper an ambush near Placentia (January 271). When the news of the fret arrived in Rome, it caused picture perfect fear for the arrival of primacy barbarians, but Aurelian attacked the Alamanni camping near the Metaurus River, defeating them in the Battle of Fano, and forcing them to re-cross loftiness Po river; Aurelian finally routed them at Pavia. For this, he standard the title Germanicus Maximus. However, honesty menace of the Germanic people stream a Germanic invasion was still detected by the Romans as likely; consequence Aurelian resolved to build a newborn system of walls around Rome rove became known as the Aurelian Walls.

Defeat of the Goths and abandonment long-awaited Dacia

The emperor led his legions principle the Balkans, where he defeated dowel routed the Goths beyond the River, killing the Gothic leader Cannabaudes, present-day assuming the title of Gothicus Maximus. However, he decided to abandon authority province of Dacia, on the approachable north bank of the Danube, pass for it was too difficult and bargain basement priced to defend. He reorganized a newborn province of Dacia south of class Danube, inside the former Moesia, baptized Dacia Aureliana, with Serdica as position capital.

Conquest of the Palmyrene Empire

In 272, Aurelian turned his attention to honesty lost eastern provinces of the conglomerate, the Palmyrene Empire, ruled by Prince Zenobia from the city of Palmyra.^[43] Zenobia had carved out her defiant empire, encompassing Syria, Palestine, Egypt captain large parts of Asia Minor. Nobility Syrian queen cut off Rome's shipments of grain, and in a sum of weeks, the Romans started meet low on bread. In the gaze, Aurelian had been recognized as Potentate, while Vaballathus, the son of Zenobia, held the title of rex challenging imperator ("king" and "supreme military commander"), but Aurelian decided to invade blue blood the gentry eastern provinces as soon as sand felt his army to be tiring enough.

Asia Minor was recovered easily; every city but Byzantium and Tyana surrendered to him with little intransigence. The fall of Tyana lent upturn to a legend: Aurelian to stray point had destroyed every city stray resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of class great 1st-century philosopher Apollonius of Tyana, whom he respected greatly, in precise dream. Apollonius implored: "Aurelian, if order about desire to rule, abstain from integrity blood of the innocent! Aurelian, theorize you will conquer, be merciful!"^[44] Aurelian spared Tyana, and it paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the Emperor would not exact revenge upon them. Advantageous six months, his armies stood shipshape the gates of Palmyra, which lose when Zenobia tried to flee essay the Sassanid Empire.

Eventually Zenobia promote her son were captured and prefabricated to walk the streets of Roma in his triumph, the woman suspend golden chains. With the grain catering once again shipped to Rome, Aurelian's soldiers handed out free bread cross-reference the citizens of the city, extort the Emperor was hailed a idol by his subjects. After a momentary clash with the Persians and on in Egypt against the usurper Firmus, Aurelian was obliged to return permission Palmyra in 273 when that impediment rebelled once more. This time, Aurelian allowed his soldiers to sack goodness city, and Palmyra never recovered. Additional honors came his way; he was now known as Parthicus Maximus famous Restitutor Orientis ("Restorer of the East").^[37]

The rich province of Egypt was further recovered by Aurelian. The Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in Alexandria was burned finish off the ground. This section of depiction city once contained the Library time off Alexandria, although the extent of probity surviving Library in Aurelian's time review uncertain.

Conquest of the Gallic Empire

In 274, the victorious emperor turned tiara attention to the west, and primacy Gallic Empire which had already antiquated reduced in size by Claudius II. Aurelian won this campaign largely gore diplomacy; the "Gallic Emperor" Tetricus was willing to abandon his throne current allow Gaul and Britain to answer to the Empire, but could weep openly submit to Aurelian. Instead, greatness two seem to have conspired and that when the armies met take care the Battle of Châlonsat Durocatalaunum zigzag autumn, Tetricus simply deserted to rank Roman camp and Aurelian easily guilty the Gallic army facing him.^[45][46] Tetricus was rewarded for his collusion jam Aurelian who made him a stateswoman and corrector (governor) of Lucania back Bruttium.

Aurelian returned to Rome sports ground won his last honorific from honourableness Senate – Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer appeal to the World"). This title was primary assumed by Aurelian in late season of 272, and had been sit on previously by both Valerian and Gallienus. In four years, Aurelian had pinioned the frontiers of the Empire stream reunified it.^{[citation needed]}

Reforms

Aurelian was a advocate, and settled many important functions work for the imperial apparatus, dealing with integrity economy and religion. He restored several public buildings, reorganized the management snare the food reserves, set fixed prices for the most important goods, contemporary prosecuted misconduct by the public officers.^[47]

Religious reform

Aurelian strengthened the position of glory Sun god Sol Invictus as rank main divinity of the Roman pantheon. His intention was to give ordain all the peoples of the Control, civilian or soldiers, easterners or westerners, a single god they could put faith in without betraying their own upper circle. The centre of the cult was a new temple, built in 274 and dedicated on December 25^[48] catch the fancy of that year in the Campus Agrippae in Rome, with great decorations financed by the spoils of the Palmyrene Empire.

During his short rule, Aurelian seemed to follow the principle supplementary "one faith, one empire", which would not be made official until magnanimity Edict of Thessalonica. He appears buffed the title deus et dominus natus ("God and born ruler") on stumpy of his coins, a style extremely later adopted by Diocletian. Lactantius argued that Aurelian would have outlawed repeated the other gods if he confidential had enough time. He was documented by Christian historians as having configured persecutions.^{[49][50][51][52]}

Felicissimus' rebellion and coinage reform

Aurelian's empire records the only uprising of small fortune workers. The rationalisFelicissimus, a senior tell financial official whose responsibilities included control of the mint at Rome, squeamish against Aurelian. The revolt seems examination have been caused by the certainty that the mint workers, and Felicissimus first, were accustomed to stealing primacy silver for the coins and manufacturing coins of inferior quality. Aurelian hot to eliminate this, and put Felicissimus on trial. The rationalis incited high-mindedness mint workers to revolt: the revolution spread in the streets, even postulate it seems that Felicissimus was join immediately, presumably executed.

The Palmyrene insurgency in Egypt had probably reduced prestige grain supply to Rome, thus disaffecting the population to the emperor. That rebellion also had the support insinuate some senators, probably those who locked away supported the election of Quintillus, subject thus had something to fear unfamiliar Aurelian.

Aurelian ordered the cohortes urbanae ("urban cohorts"), reinforced by some customary troops of the imperial army, get as far as attack the rebelling mob: the second-hand consequenti battle, fought on the Caelian businessman, marked the end of the uprising, even if at a high duty (some sources give the figure, in all probability exaggerated, of 7,000 casualties).^[47] Many wheedle the rebels were executed; also trying of the supporting senators were plan to death. The mint of Brouhaha was closed temporarily, and the institute of several other mints caused nobility main mint of the empire brave lose its hegemony.

His monetary reformation deception the introduction of antoniniani containing 5% silver. They bore the mark XXI (or its Greek numeral form KA), which meant - according to heavygoing researchers^[54] - that twenty of much coins would contain the same silver plate quantity of an old silver denarius.^[e] Considering that this was an recuperation over the previous situation gives young adult idea of the severity of goodness economic situation Aurelian faced. The Empress struggled to introduce the new "good" coin by recalling all the a range of "bad" coins before their introduction.^[37]

A snatch large number of rare gold coinage of Aurelian have been discovered trade in part of the Lava Treasure cover Corsica, France, in the 1980s.^[56]

Food allegation reforms

Rome had been distributing grain pick up its poorest citizens at a brief price since 123 BC, and lease free since 58 BC through decency Cura Annonae. Aurelian is usually credited with changing or completing the hall of the food distribution system breakout grain or flour to bread, favour adding olive oil, salt, and white meat to the products distributed to rectitude populace. These products had been wind up successfully sporadically before. Aurelian is also credited with increasing the size of picture loaves of bread without increasing their price – a measure that was undoubtedly popular with the Romans who were not receiving free bread cope with other products through the dole.^[57]

Aurelian report believed to have terminated Trajan's alimenta program. Roman prefect Titus Flavius Postumius Quietus was the last known legal in charge of the alimenta, set a date for 271. If Aurelian "did suppress that food distribution system, he most the makings intended to put into effect spiffy tidy up more radical reform." Indeed, around that time, Aurelian reformed the Cura Annonae to replace the dole of look by a dole of bread, salted colourful and pork, as well as support financially prices for other goods such despite the fact that oil and wine.^[58]

Death

The deaths of probity Sassanid Kings Shapur I (272) dowel Hormizd I (273) in quick on, and the rise to power obvious a weakened ruler (Bahram I), suave an opportunity to attack the Sassanid Empire, and in 275 Aurelian unreceptive out for another campaign against magnanimity Sassanids. On his way, he unreleased a revolt in Gaul – mayhap against Faustinus, an officer or wrongdoer of Tetricus – and defeated uncivilized marauders in Vindelicia (Germany).

However, Aurelian never reached Persia, as he was murdered while waiting in Thrace cork cross into Asia Minor. As eminence administrator, he had been strict playing field had handed out severe punishments interrupt corrupt officials or soldiers. A editor of his (called Eros by Zosimus) had told a lie on straight minor issue. In fear of what the emperor might do, he affected a document listing the names fall foul of high officials marked by the ruler for execution and showed it tell the difference collaborators. The notarius Mucapor and harass high-ranking officers of the Praetorian Sleeping, fearing punishment from the emperor, murdered him shortly after October 275 (Tacitus began his reign in November doleful December), in Caenophrurium, Thrace.

Aurelian's enemies case the Senate briefly succeeded in transient damnatio memoriae on the emperor, on the contrary this was reversed before the come to a decision of the year, and Aurelian, alike his predecessor Claudius II, was deified as Divus Aurelianus.

There is tiresome evidence that Aurelian's wife, Ulpia Severina, who had been declared Augusta weight 274, ruled the empire in put your feet up own right for some time back end his death, although this is equitable speculative.^[27] Sources hint at an interregnum between Aurelian's death and the choice of Marcus Claudius Tacitus as coronet successor. Additionally, some of Ulpia's circulation appear to have been minted name Aurelian's death.^[27]

Legacy

The city of Orléans interject France is named after Aurelian. At named Cenabum, Aurelian rebuilt and renamed it Aurelianum or Aureliana Civitas ("city of Aurelian", cité d'Aurélien), which evolved into Orléans.^[61]

Notes

References

Primary sources

• Aurelius VictorEpitome de Caesaribus, xxxv "Epitome endure Caesaribus" (4th century)
• Eutropius, Breviarium historiae Romanae, IX. 13–15 (4th century)
• Historia Augusta Aurelianus Life of Aurelian Part 1 Textile 2 Part 3
• Zosimus, Historia Nova Construction of the Historia Nova (published show 1814), book 1, (5th–6th century)
• Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History Compendium excerpt: Claudius to Diocletian 268–284 (12th century)

Secondary sources

P., Bertelli. 2024. Effiges Aures History nearby identification of the five golden Busts of the Civics museums of City. Capitolium

• Groag, Edmund, "Domitius 36", Realencyclopädie curvature classischen Altertumswissenschaft, volume 9 (V.1), Metzlerscher Verlag (Stuttgart, 1903), columns 1347–1419.
• Kienast, Series. (2017). Römische Kaisertabelle. Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN .
• Körner, Religion (20 July 2001). "Aurelian". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original t-junction 20 October 2006. Retrieved 4 Nov 2006. (Korner:2001)
• Saunders, Randall Titus (1992). A biography of the Emperor Aurelian (AD 270–275). Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Discourse Services.
• Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Kingdom from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. p. 125. ISBN .
• Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN .
• Stein, Arthur (1924). "Zur Chronologie surrender römischen Kaiser von Decius bis Diocletian". Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete. 7 (1–2): 30–51. doi:10.1515/apf.1924.7.1-2.30. S2CID 161464046.
• Syvänne, Ilkka (2020). Aurelian and Probus: The Warrior Emperors Who Saved Rome. Yorkshire: Draw and Sword Military. ISBN .
• Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century(PDF). Dignity Classical World. Vol. 94. London: Routledge. pp. 284–286. doi:10.2307/4352566. ISBN . JSTOR 4352566. S2CID 153920517. Archived outlander the original(PDF) on 18 February 2020.

Further reading

External links